#1of19 - Human Capital and Intergeneration Mobility - Introduction

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1of19 - Human Capital and Intergeneration Mobility - Introduction

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GARY BECKER This the first lecture in the "Lectures on Human Capital" series by Gary Becker. This series of lectures recorded during the Spring of 2010 are from ECON 343 - Human Capital, a class taught every year by Gary Becker at the University of Chicago. In this class, Becker expounds upon the theory of Human Capital that he helped create and for which he won the Nobel Prize. Please see attached lecture notes, video annotations, and reading list for more information. --- Professor Becker introduces the course objectives and discusses the main themes covered in his class. The main course subjects covered in the study of Human Capital are: investments in education in an altruistic model, trade-offs between human capital and physical capital investments, intergenerational income mobility, investments in health, marriage markets, fertility, on the job training, specialization and the division of labor, and the division of labor and the extent of the economy. He defines human capital as special because it is inextricably linked to a human being and cannot be separated from her; the "capital" component comes because human capital like physical capital is durable. Becker establishes the main conceptual and practical similarities (i.e. economic return, depreciation, etc.) and differences (i.e. transferability, liquidity, etc.) and similarities between human and physical capital. In this lecture, Becker establishes how he conceives of the study of Human Capital. He says that it is a subject of Economics that ties together micro and macroeconomics. The micro element comes from the link between parents and their children and the macro element because of how human capital is a main determinant of economic growth. Key concepts: altruism with differences in ability, division of labor, education in an altruistic model, fertility, human capital, intergenerational income mobility, investments in health, marriage markets, physical capital, specialization and the division of labor. Main discussions: • Lecture 1, (11:50-13:05): Professor Becker discusses how human capital is involved in the more microeconomic aspects of economic behavior within the family and in the more macroeconomic aspects of economic development. • Lecture 1, (14:45-21:15): Professor Becker explains one of the concepts that he reinforces throughout his class: the complementary between different forms of human capital and its implications. • Lecture 1, (31:35-1:06:00): Professor Becker draws the main similarities and differences between human and physical capitals. Main quotes: • "(...) we'll try to show how by starting at the Micro we can build up a better understanding of what's going to happen at the Macro [level]". References: • Chapter II, Section 1: Human Capital Revisited in Becker, Gary. 1974. Human Capital. Third ed. pp. 15-25. • Salvador Navarro Lozano. Notes on Gary Becker's Human Capital and the Economy. pp. 5-6. -- Lecture Notes: https://mindonline.uchicago.edu/media... Reading List: https://mindonline.uchicago.edu/media... Video Annotations: https://mindonline.uchicago.edu/media... ➡ Subscribe: http://bit.ly/UCHICAGOytSubscribe About #UChicago: A destination for inquiry, research, and education, the University of Chicago empowers scholars to challenge conventional thinking. Our diverse community of creative thinkers celebrates ideas, and is celebrated for them. #UChicago on the Web: Home: http://bit.ly/UCHICAGO-home News: http://bit.ly/UCHICAGO-news Facebook: http://bit.ly/UCHICAGO-FB Twitter: http://bit.ly/UCHICAGO-TW Instagram: http://bit.ly/UCHICAGO-IG University of Chicago on YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/uchicago *** ACCESSIBILITY: If you experience any technical difficulties with this video or would like to make an accessibility-related request, please email digicomm@uchicago.edu.

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Crime and imprisonment at second instance in Brazil

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Our country has a retrograde legal culture that despises empirical analysis

The Supreme Court (STF) President, Minister Dias Toffoli, when casting the vote that changed again the changing jurisprudence of the highest court, said that it is not the prison after the second instance that solves problems of crime and impunity, or avoids committing crimes. However, this rhetorical argument, defended with strong emotion, is not supported by scientific studies that underlie the criminal policy of the vast majority of countries.

It should be reminded to Toffoli and the other STF ministers, who uncritically repeat arguments of well-paid criminal lawyers, that the hypothesis as to whether more severe punishment (imprisonment) contributes to the reduction of crime is empirically testable. . That is, such hypothesis can be considered valid or invalid from empirical analysis.

Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham, who laid the foundations of criminology in the 18th and 19th centuries, respectively, understood crime as the product of rational calculation decision. Offenders assess the likelihood of being convicted and punished, and when it is low they will engage in more criminal practice. Both argued that laws and penalties should discourage individuals from committing infractions, and that imprisonment has a preventive effect by inhibiting criminal behavior throughout society.

But it was Professor Gary Becker of the University of Chicago who, in 1968, designed contemporary criminal analysis, fostering the emergence of abundant literature that instructs public policy in Europe, the United States, and other countries. Becker established an internationally recognized mathematical model for assessing crime, a contribution that earned him no less than the 1992 Nobel Prize in Economics.

Becker's model uses variables on crime damage, costs of arrest and conviction of criminals, number of crimes and forms of punishment, among other factors, to investigate the best public policies to combat delinquency. Currently there is international consensus among scholars, supported by statistics and scientific methodology, that, keeping other variables constant, the increase in the probability of conviction and punishment, in general, has a reduction in the number of crimes.

Thus, to say that imprisonment after the decision in the second instance does not contribute to solving problems of criminality and impunity, as Dias Toffoli did, is equivalent to maintaining that chemotherapy does not help in the treatment of cancer. However, studies with empirical evidence have shown that chemotherapy is an effective treatment against the disease, just as arrest has been shown to be an effective solution against crime.

The outcome of the 7/11 Brazilian Supreme Court (STF) trial puts Brazil in an isolated position in the world, as study by Deputy Attorney General Luiza Frischeisen points out, as 193 of the 194 UN countries adopt the beginning of the execution of the prison sentence after a court decision. first or second degree.

Research by Steven Levitt of the University of Chicago shows that arrest impacts crime because of the deterrent effect on potential criminal agents. Levitt and Daniel Kessler tested the effects of legal changes with increased prison sentences for various crimes in California and concluded that they led to a decrease in illicit acts in later years. Siddhartha Bandyopadhyay's study analyzed the impact of convictions and arrests in England and Wales and found that prisons generally decrease crime.

Becker also explained that the likelihood of conviction and punishment is related to the criminal's income. Recognizing the economic power of some litigants, American legal literature deals scientifically with topics that are still true taboos among us.

For example, an article by John Goodman in the Journal of Legal Studies as early as 1978 argued that judges can be persuaded by the parties' financial efforts to defend their causes by investing in legal research, hiring talented lawyers, and better formulated argument. . Goodman presented a mathematical model in which the likelihood that a party will win a court case will depend on the amount of money each party spends to enjoy the best defense.

The author identified that law can evolve inefficiently for society when the interests of the party do not reflect the costs and aggregate social benefits that result from the legal norm that is being challenged. This occurs when the result is good for the party but bad for society.

Paul Rubin and Martin Bailey have argued that lawyers have a long-term interest.

Paul Rubin and Martin Bailey have argued that lawyers have a long-term interest in the resulting jurisprudence and will exert continual pressure on it to evolve in favor of legal arguments that benefit their clients as an organized interest group. The authors cite the case of the evolution of criminal jurisprudence that emphasizes procedural issues, ensuring the demand for attorney services. Such analysis helps in understanding the result of the STF's historical judgment, since one of the actions that led to the jurisprudential change was filed by OAB itself.

Therefore, it is to be expected that among the approximately 5,000 prisoners who may benefit from the Supreme Court decision, those who have the most financial resources to defend themselves before the judiciary will be released from prison faster, as has already been noted. Our country has a backward-looking legal culture that scorns empirical analysis, although it explains the certainty of impunity for some and the legal insecurity in which most of society lives.

Our country has a retrograde legal culture that despises empirical analysis

* DOCTOR IN LAW AT USP, POST-DOCTORATED AT TEXAS UNIVERSITY, TEACHER AT TEXAS UNIVERSITIES, CORNELL AND VANDERBILT, DIRECTOR OF YALE LAW SCHOOL BUSINESS LAW CENTER AND STANFORD AND YALE RESEARCHER

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Criminalidade e prisão em segunda instância

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Nosso país apresenta cultura jurídica retrógrada, que despreza a análise empírica

O presidente do Supremo Tribunal Federal (STF), ministro Dias Toffoli, ao proferir o voto que mudou novamente a cambiante jurisprudência da mais alta Corte, afirmou que não é a prisão após segunda instância que resolve problemas de criminalidade e de impunidade, ou evita a prática de crimes. No entanto, tal argumento retórico, defendido com forte emoção, não é amparado por estudos científicos que fundamentam a política criminal da grande maioria dos países.

Convém lembrar a Toffoli e aos demais ministros do STF, que repetem acriticamente argumentos de advogados criminalistas muito bem remunerados, que a hipótese sobre se a aplicação de punição severa (prisão) de modo mais ágil contribui ou não para a diminuição da criminalidade é empiricamente testável. Ou seja, tal hipótese pode ser considerada válida ou inválida a partir de análise empírica.

Cesare Beccaria e Jeremy Bentham, que lançaram as bases da criminologia nos séculos 18 e 19, respectivamente, entendiam o crime como produto de decisão de cálculo racional. Infratores avaliam a probabilidade de serem condenados e punidos, e quando ela é baixa se engajarão em mais práticas criminosas. Ambos defenderam a tese de que as leis e as penas devem desestimular indivíduos a cometer infrações, e que a prisão produz efeito preventivo, inibindo comportamentos criminosos em toda a sociedade.

Mas foi o professor Gary Becker, da Universidade de Chicago, que, em 1968, desenhou a análise criminal contemporânea, fomentando o surgimento de literatura abundante que instrui as políticas públicas na Europa, nos Estados Unidos e em outros países. Becker estabeleceu modelo matemático internacionalmente reconhecido para avaliar a criminalidade, contribuição que lhe valeu nada menos que o Prêmio Nobel de Economia em 1992.

O modelo de Becker usa variáveis sobre danos causados pelos crimes, custos de apreensão e condenação dos criminosos, número de crimes e formas de punição, entre outros fatores, para investigar as melhores políticas públicas de combate à delinquência. Atualmente há consenso internacional entre os estudiosos, amparado por estatísticas e metodologia científica, de que, mantidas outras variáveis constantes, o aumento na probabilidade de condenação e punição, em geral, repercute na redução do número de delitos.

Logo, dizer que a prisão após a decisão em segunda instância não contribui para solucionar problemas de criminalidade e impunidade, como fez Dias Toffoli, equivale a sustentar que a quimioterapia não auxilia no tratamento do câncer. Ora, estudos com evidências empíricas comprovaram que a quimioterapia é tratamento eficaz contra a doença, da mesma forma que foi demonstrado que a prisão é solução eficaz contra a criminalidade.

O resultado do julgamento do STF do dia 7/11 coloca o Brasil em posição isolada no mundo, conforme apontou estudo da subprocuradora-geral Luiza Frischeisen, já que 193 dos 194 países da ONU adotam o início da execução da pena de prisão após decisão judicial de primeiro ou de segundo grau.

Pesquisas de Steven Levitt, da Universidade de Chicago, demonstram que a prisão impacta o crime em razão do efeito dissuasório sobre potenciais agentes criminosos. Levitt e Daniel Kessler testaram os efeitos de mudanças legais com incremento de penas de prisão para diversos crimes na Califórnia e concluíram que elas acarretaram a diminuição de ilícitos nos anos posteriores. Estudo de Siddhartha Bandyopadhyay analisou o impacto de condenações e prisões na Inglaterra e no País de Gales e concluiu que as prisões, no geral, fazem decrescer a criminalidade.

Becker também expôs que a probabilidade de condenação e punição é relacionada à renda do criminoso. Ao reconhecer o poder econômico de alguns litigantes, a literatura jurídica americana trata, cientificamente, de temas que entre nós ainda são verdadeiros tabus.

Por exemplo, artigo de John Goodman no Journal of Legal Studies já em 1978 argumentava que juízes podem ser persuadidos com os esforços financeiros das partes ao defenderem as suas causas, por meio de investimentos em pesquisa jurídica, contratação de advogados talentosos e argumentação mais bem formulada. Goodman apresentou modelo matemático em que a probabilidade de uma parte vir a ganhar um processo judicial dependerá do quantum em dinheiro que cada parte gasta para usufruir a melhor defesa.

O autor identificou que o Direito pode evoluir de maneira ineficiente para a sociedade quando os interesses da parte não refletirem os custos e os benefícios sociais agregados que decorrem da norma jurídica que está sendo questionada. Isso ocorre quando o resultado é bom para a parte, mas ruim para a sociedade.

Paul Rubin e Martin Bailey argumentaram que advogados têm interesse de longo prazo na jurisprudência resultante e exercerão pressão contínua para que ela evolua a favor de teses jurídicas que beneficiem seus clientes, atuando como grupo de interesses organizado. Os autores citam o caso da evolução da jurisprudência criminal que enfatiza questões processuais, assegurando a demanda por serviços advocatícios. Tal análise auxilia na compreensão do resultado do julgamento histórico do STF, já que uma das ações que suscitou a mudança jurisprudencial foi impetrada pela própria OAB.

Portanto, é de esperar que, dentre os cerca de 5 mil presos que se podem beneficiar da decisão do STF, os que têm mais recursos financeiros para despender na sua defesa perante o Judiciário sairão mais rapidamente da prisão, como já se vem verificando. Nosso país apresenta cultura jurídica retrógrada, que despreza análise empírica, embora ela explique a certeza da impunidade para alguns e a insegurança jurídica em que vive a maior parte da sociedade.

Nosso país apresenta cultura jurídica retrógrada, que despreza a análise empírica

*DOUTORA EM DIREITO PELA USP, COM PÓS-DOUTORAMENTO NA UNIVERSIDADE DO TEXAS, FOI PROFESSORA NAS UNIVERSIDADES DO TEXAS, CORNELL E VANDERBILT, DIRETORA DO CENTRO DE DIREITO EMPRESARIAL DA YALE LAW SCHOOL E PESQUISADORA EM STANFORD E YALE

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